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Between the eighth and eleventh centuries A. D., the Byzantine Empire staged an almost unparalleled economic and cultural revival, a recovery that is all the more striking because it followed a long period of severe internal decline. By the early eighth century, the empire had lost roughly two-thirds of the territory it had possessed in the year 600, and its remaining area was being raided by Arabs and Bulgarians, who at times threatened to take Constantinople and extinguished the empire altogether. The wealth of the state and its subjects was greatly diminished, and artistic and literary production had virtually ceased. By the early eleventh century, however, the empire had regained almost half of its lost possessions, its new frontiers were secure, and its influence extended far beyond its borders. The economy had recovered, the treasury was full, and art and scholarship had advanced.
To consider the Byzantine military, cultural, and economic advances as differentiated aspects of a single phenomenon is reasonable. After all, these three forms of progress have gone together in a number of states and civilizations. Rome under Augustus and fifth-century Athens provide the most obvious examples in antiquity. Moreover, an examination of the apparent sequential connections among military, economic, and cultural forms of progress might help explain the dynamics of historical change.
The common explanation of these apparent connections in the case of Byzantium would run like this: when the empire had turned back enemy raids on its own territory and had begun to raid and conquer enemy territory, Byzantine resources naturally expanded and more money became available to patronize art and literature. Therefore, Byzantine military achievements led to economic advances, which in turn led to cultural revival.
No doubt this hypothetical pattern did apply at times during the course of the recovery. Yet it is not clear that military advances invariably came first. Economic advances second, and intellectual advances third. In the 860’s the Byzantine Empire began to recover from Arab incursions so that by 872 the military balance with the Abbasid Caliphate had been permanently altered in the empire’s favor. The beginning of the empire’s economic revival, however, can be placed between 810 and 830. Finally, the Byzantine revival of learning appears to have begun even earlier. A number of notable scholars and writers appeared by 788 and, by the last decade of the eighth century, a cultural revival was in full bloom, a revival that lasted until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. Thus the commonly expected order of military revival followed by economic and then by cultural recovery was reversed in Byzantium. In fact, the revival of Byzantine learning may itself have influenced the subsequent economic and military expansion.
1. Which of the following best states the central idea of the text?
[A] The Byzantine Empire was a unique case in which the usual order of military and economic revival preceding cultural revival was reversed.
[B] The economic, cultural, and military revival in the Byzantine Empire between the eighth and eleventh centuries was similar in its order to the sequence of revival in Augustan Rome and fifth-century Athens.
[C] After 810 Byzantine economic recovery spurred a military and, later, cultural expansion that lasted until 1453.
[D] The revival of the Byzantine Empire between the eighth and eleventh centuries shows cultural rebirth preceding economic and military revival, the reverse of the generally accepted sequence of progress.
2. It can be inferred from the text that the Byzantine Empire sustained significant territorial losses
[A] in 600.
[B] during the seventh century.
[C] a century after the cultural achievements of the Byzantine Empire had been lost.
[D] soon after the revival of Byzantine learning.
3. In the third paragraph, the author most probably provides an explanation of the apparent connections among economic, military, and cultural development in order to
[A] suggest that the process of revival in Byzantium accords with this model.
[B] set up an order of events that is then shown to be not generally applicable to the case of Byzantium.
[C] cast aspersions on traditional historical scholarship about Byzantium.
[D] suggest that Byzantium represents a case for which no historical precedent exists.
4. Which of the following does the author mention as crucial evidence concerning the manner in which the Byzantine revival began?
[A] The Byzantine military revival of the 860’s led to economic and cultural advances.
[B] The Byzantine cultural revival lasted until 1453.
[C] The Byzantine economic recovery began in the 900’s.
[D] The revival of Byzantine learning began toward the end of the eighth century.
5. According to the author, “The common explanation” (line 1, paragraph 3) of connections between economic, military, and cultural development is
[A] revolutionary and too new to have been applied to the history of the Byzantine Empire.
[B] reasonable, but an antiquated theory of the nature of progress.
[C] not applicable to the Byzantine revival as a whole, but does perhaps accurately describe limited periods during the revival.
[D] equally applicable to the Byzantine case as a whole and to the history of military, economic, and cultural advances in ancient Greece and Rome.
[參考譯文]
在8—11世紀(jì)之間，拜占庭帝國(guó)出現(xiàn)了一次無(wú)與倫比的經(jīng)濟(jì)和文化復(fù)興，這次復(fù)興之所以引人注目是因?yàn)樗霈F(xiàn)在一次嚴(yán)重的內(nèi)部衰落之后。8世紀(jì)時(shí)，帝國(guó)失去了它600年時(shí)所擁有領(lǐng)土的大約2/3。僅存的部分也受到阿拉伯人和保加利亞人的侵襲，這些國(guó)家經(jīng)常威脅說(shuō)要攻占首都君士坦丁堡，把拜占庭徹底消滅掉。帝國(guó)的財(cái)富和臣民大幅減少，文學(xué)藝術(shù)也實(shí)際上陷于停頓。不過(guò)，到了11世紀(jì)初期，帝國(guó)重新收回了淪陷領(lǐng)土的幾乎一半，新的邊界是安定的，其影響遠(yuǎn)及疆土之外。經(jīng)濟(jì)也恢復(fù)了，國(guó)庫(kù)充實(shí)，文學(xué)藝術(shù)也向前發(fā)展。
把拜占庭軍事、文藝以及經(jīng)濟(jì)上的復(fù)興理解為同一現(xiàn)象的不同表現(xiàn)是合理的。畢竟，這三者在相當(dāng)多的同家中是一同出現(xiàn)的。奧古斯都統(tǒng)治下的羅馬和公元前五世紀(jì)的雅典就是古代社會(huì)最好的例證。而且，對(duì)三者之間次第出現(xiàn)的聯(lián)系做一番考察也有助于解釋歷史變化的原因。
通常，對(duì)于拜占庭帝國(guó)中三者復(fù)興的聯(lián)系會(huì)這樣解釋?zhuān)寒?dāng)?shù)蹏?guó)已擊退敵人的進(jìn)攻并反攻到敵國(guó)疆土之時(shí)，拜占庭的財(cái)富自然就會(huì)增長(zhǎng)，從而有更多的金錢(qián)可用來(lái)投資于文化藝術(shù)事業(yè)。因此，帝國(guó)軍事成就促進(jìn)經(jīng)濟(jì)昌盛，后者又引起了文化繁榮。
毫無(wú)疑問(wèn)，這種假設(shè)能夠解釋復(fù)興中的一些現(xiàn)象。但是我們不能明確地認(rèn)為軍事成就一定最先出現(xiàn)，經(jīng)濟(jì)其次，文化最后。(事實(shí)上)860年左右拜占庭帝國(guó)開(kāi)始收復(fù)阿拉伯人占領(lǐng)的失地，直到872年，和哈里發(fā)阿拉伯國(guó)家的軍事對(duì)比才有利于帝國(guó)。而經(jīng)濟(jì)的復(fù)興在810—830年間就已開(kāi)始。文化的復(fù)興更早，早在788年，一批有名的學(xué)者、作家就出現(xiàn)了，8世紀(jì)最后十年，文化復(fù)興已達(dá)極盛，并一直延續(xù)到1453年君士坦丁堡的陷落。因此，通常所認(rèn)為的軍事、經(jīng)濟(jì)、文化復(fù)興三者次第出現(xiàn)的順序在拜占庭是完全顛倒的。實(shí)際上，拜占庭文化的復(fù)興可能反而影響了后來(lái)的經(jīng)濟(jì)、軍事進(jìn)步。
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