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英語合同的特點(diǎn)分析
- Contract 與 Agreement的有無區(qū)別
在英語中，合同一般稱為Contract，協(xié)議一般稱為Agreement。
何謂“Contract”?
1999年中國《合同法》第二條對(duì)contract定義為：A contact in t his Law refers to an agreement establishing, modifying and terminating the civil rights and obligations between subjects of equal footing, that is ,between natural persons, legal persons or other organizations. 根據(jù)這一定義，合同平等主體之間設(shè)立的確定民事權(quán)利和義務(wù)的協(xié)議。
Steven H. Gifts編著的“Law Dictionary”中將contract 定義為“contract is a promise, or a set of promises, for breach of which the law gives remedy, or the performance of the which the law in some way recognize as a duty.”根據(jù)這一定義，合同是一種承諾，違反承諾可以得到法律救助，某種意義上法律將履行該承諾看做是一種補(bǔ)償。
L.B Curzon 在其編撰的字典“A Dictionary of Law”給contract的定義：“Contract is a legally binding agreement”根據(jù)這一定義，合同就是有法律約束力的協(xié)議。
綜合起來，有一個(gè)相同點(diǎn)，就是“Contract is an agreement”，即可將事同說成是“An agreement which binds the parties concerned”或者說成是“An agreement which is enforceable by law”，也可以說：Contracts are promises that the law will enforce。
何謂“Agreement”?
L.B “A consensus of mind, or evidence of such consensus, in spoke or written form, relating to anything done or to be done.”根據(jù)這一定義，協(xié)議是對(duì)已經(jīng)做或準(zhǔn)備做的相關(guān)事宜，經(jīng)過談判、協(xié)商后取得一致意見，以口頭或書面形式做出的約定。
Black “Law Dictionary”有兩個(gè)定義。一個(gè)是：“A concord of understanding and intention between two or more parties with respect to the effect upon their relative rights and duties, of certain past or future facts or performance”根據(jù)這一定義，協(xié)議即雙方或多方京某些過去或?qū)砟承┦聦?shí)的相關(guān)權(quán)利、義務(wù)或相關(guān)權(quán)利、義務(wù)的履行而達(dá)成的一致理解和愿望。
另一個(gè)是：The consent of two or more persons concurring respecting the transmission of some property, right or benefits, with the view of contacting an obligation, a mutual obligation.根據(jù)這一定義，協(xié)議即兩個(gè)或多個(gè)當(dāng)事人，為了約定單方責(zé)任或相互責(zé)任，就財(cái)產(chǎn)權(quán)利、利益的轉(zhuǎn)移取得的一致同意。
Contract(合同)和Agreement(協(xié)議)是不是可以互換呢？
合同的成立必須具備幾個(gè)主要因素。它們（要約和承諾構(gòu)成的）協(xié)議、約因、設(shè)立法律關(guān)系的愿望和締約能力四大部分組成。
L.B Curzon編著的“A Diction of Law”提到“Contract generally involves”
1. offer and absolute and unqualified acceptance (要約和絕對(duì)接受)
2. consensus ad idem (意思表示一致，也叫meeting of minds)
3. intention to create legal relations (建立合同關(guān)系的意愿)
4. genuineness of consent (同意的真實(shí)性)
5. contractual capacity of the parties (合同當(dāng)事人的締約能力)
6. legality of object(標(biāo)的物的合法性)
7. possibility of performance (履行的可能性)
8. certainty of terms(條款的確定性)
9. valuable consideration(等價(jià)有償)
Black “Law Dictionary” 中解釋道：Although often used as synonyms with "contract", agreement is a broader term, e.g. an agreement might lack an essential element of a contact." 即“協(xié)議”和“合同”經(jīng)常用作同義詞，但“協(xié)議”這一術(shù)語含義更廣，例如協(xié)議可能缺乏合同的必備條款（essential clauses/provisions）。
實(shí)際使用當(dāng)中，協(xié)議可不受必備條款的限制，而稱為合同的文體肯定少不了必備條款，有的合同將其單列，稱為一般條款（General provisions）。
1999中國《合同法》第十二條規(guī)定了八項(xiàng)一般條款，分別是：
1. title or name and domicile of the parities(當(dāng)事人的名稱或姓名和住址)
2. contract object(標(biāo)的)
3. quantity(數(shù)量)
4. quality(質(zhì)量)
5. price or remuneration(價(jià)款或者報(bào)酬)
6. time limit, place and method of performance (履行期限、地點(diǎn)和方式)
7. liability for breach of contract(違約責(zé)任)
8. methods to settle disputes (解決爭議的方法)
上述解釋說明，contract(合同)和agreement(協(xié)議)的概念雖然接近，但使用范圍不同，不能互換使用。合同是協(xié)議的重要組成部分，所有合同一定是協(xié)議，而協(xié)議不見得都是合同�？梢哉f具備合同成立要求的具有強(qiáng)制執(zhí)行力的協(xié)議才是合同。
結(jié)構(gòu)特點(diǎn)
合同類法律文件用以規(guī)定當(dāng)事人的權(quán)利與義務(wù)，是預(yù)防與解決爭議的依據(jù)。合同英語行文慎密而準(zhǔn)確，歷史悠久，深含法律文化底蘊(yùn)。
中文的合同開頭一般先羅列當(dāng)事人的名稱、姓名、住所或營業(yè)場(chǎng)所，然后是合同正文，結(jié)尾是當(dāng)事人印章、授權(quán)代表簽字、職務(wù)及簽字日期。而英語合同一般以下面這類句式為開頭：
This agreement/contract is made and entered in to this ____ day of _____(month), _______ (year) by and between Party A (hereinafter called " Party A ")and Party B(hereinafter called " Party B ")
然后是開始陳述：
WHEREAS...THEREFORE
… It is hereby agreed as follows:
或以：
WITNESSETH, WHEREAS…
NOW THEREFORE, for and in consideration of the mutual covenants and agreements contained herein, the parties hereby covenant and agree as follows:
接著是正文，最后是證明部分，：
IN WITNESS WHEREOF，the parties hereto have hereunto set their hands the day and years first above written.
隨后還包括當(dāng)事人和見證人的簽字。簽字日期一般在英文合同最搬弄是非是找不到的。
下面列出新加坡、美國、香港和日本的合同格式。
A. 新加坡
Agreement
THIS AGREEMENT is made the 9th day of August, 2001 between LUCKY INTERNATIONAL LTD, a company incorporated in Singapore and having its registered office at Telek Blongar Rise, Singapore 19569 (hereinfater called "The Company") of the part and JACK Wong (NRIC No._________ /A) of 108 Orchar Road, Singapore 01688 (hereinfater called "The Mangager") of the other part.
WHEREAS:
1. The company is engaged in IT business and requires a person with the necessary qualifications and experience to manage its business.
2.
….
NOW IT IS HEREBY AGREED as follows:
1. The company shall employ the Manager and the Manager shall serve the Company as manager of the Company’s IT business for a period of two years commencing on 1st day of September
2.
….
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties hereto have set their hand the day and year first above written.
THE SCHEDULE ABOVE REFERRED TO
Duties of Manger
1. To manage, maintain and promote the business of the Company.
SIGNED by Roger Tan
For and on behalf of LUCKY INTERANTIONAL LTD
In the presence of
SIGNED by TERESA WONG
In the presence of
新加坡的通用合同分五部分：
第一部分：稱為parties，主要介紹合同各方的姓名或名稱，注冊(cè)地國及地址、郵編及各自在合同的簡稱。開頭框架一般為：
THIS AGREEMENT is made the ---------__________ day of _____ （month）,____ (year) between A _______ (hereinafter called "The Company") of the part and B______, (hereinafter called "The Manager") of the other part.
句子開頭THIS AGREEMENT 或CONTRACT和當(dāng)事人的姓名和名稱，都應(yīng)大寫。當(dāng)事人是自然人的，用“of”和其后的住址相連；是法人或非法人單位的，用“having its registered office at”和其后注冊(cè)地址相連。
第二部分：稱為recital。以WHEREAS開頭，進(jìn)入敘述部分，用陳述正式說明當(dāng)事人訂立合同的原因。
第三部分：稱為habendum 具體約定當(dāng)事人的權(quán)利和義務(wù)。正文部分的結(jié)束段為：
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties hereto have set their hand the day and year first above written.
這段作用相當(dāng)于中文合同的“雙方簽字蓋章，特此為證”。
第四部分：稱為schedule或addendum，附錄。是對(duì)前述合同部分條款的必要補(bǔ)充。不是所有合同都有這一項(xiàng)。
第五部分：稱為attestation，證明部分。當(dāng)事人如果自然人，用“SIGNED by __”
��；連接后填寫見證姓名的表達(dá)部分“In the presence of ____”；當(dāng)事人是法人或非法人單位時(shí)，授權(quán)代表后接的是“SIGNED for and on behalf _____ of____”，然后才是In the presence of _______。與中文合同的顯著不同是簽章處除當(dāng)事人外，多了一個(gè)In the presence of _______供證人簽字之處。另一不同的是合同訂立日期沒有放在合同最后，而是出現(xiàn)在開頭段的當(dāng)事人介紹部分。
第五部分在新加坡還有另一種表達(dá)
As Witness our Hands this _____day of _____，in the year of our Lord Tow Thousand and One.
Signed, sealed, and delivered by the above named
In the presence of
Signature
Address
Occupation
上述合同的格式很有代表性，其它英文格式與之相比大同大異，有的合同中不含附錄。
B. 美國
APPOINTMENT AS CONTRACT FULL-TIME SENIOR CUSTOMS ADMINISTRATOR
AN AGREEMENT FOR SERVICES made the 1st day of September, 2000 between ______ of _____ (address)(hereinafter referred to as "the Company") as one part and Mr._______ of _______(address) (hereinafter referred to as the Contractor) of the other part.
WHEREBY IT IS AGREED AND DECLARED AS FOLLOWS:
1. THAT the Company shall …
2. This agreement shall commence on ….
3.
4.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, both parties set their hands on the date herein mentioned
SIGNED BY
Name :
Designation :
For and on behalf of : (signature)
Contractor :
Designation :
For and on behalf of : (signature)
本合同分為四個(gè)大部分（缺附錄，schedule）。與上一合同基本相同，但第一段沒有謂語，不是個(gè)完整的句子。個(gè)別用詞與前一合同有差別。最后落款處還多了了“職務(wù)”，即designation(有的合同還慣用position).
-
C. 香港
CONTRACT
CONTACT NO.
SIGNING DATE/PLACE
THE BUYER: Name
Legal Address
Contact
THE SELLER: Name
Legal Address
Contact
This contract is made by and between the Buyer and the Seller. Whereby the Buyer agrees o buy and the Seller agrees to sell the under-mentioned commodity according to the terms and conditions.
1. NAME OF COMMODITY AND SCOPE OF THE CONTRACT
2. PRICE
3. PAYMENT
4. PACKING
5.
IN WITHNESS WHEREOF, this contract has been executed effective as of the date first above written.
THE BUYER THE SELLER
___________ ___________
By:__________ By:__________
Date:------------_________ Date:------------_________
THE END USER
___________
By: __________
Date: --------____-_________
比起前兩個(gè)合同，該買賣合同的不同之處于在于，合同開頭出現(xiàn)了合同編號(hào)和簽署日期，當(dāng)事人名稱或姓名采用簡單列舉式。證明部分用完成時(shí)被動(dòng)態(tài)，最后落款處SIGNED BY項(xiàng)目，但增加了最終用戶一項(xiàng)。
D. 日本
SERVICE AGREEMENT
This agreement is made and entered into on March 1st ,2001, by and between______ LTD (hereinafter referred to as "PARTY A"), and ________CO., LTD. ((hereinafter referred to as "PARTY B") WITNESSTH:
WHEREAS, PARTY B has requested by PARTY A to dispatch its personal for the purpose of _______ to PARTY b; and
WHEREAS, (PARTY A is willing to dispatch its personnel t PARTY B in response to such PARTY B’s request)
NOW, THEREFORE, in consideration of the mutual promises and covenants herein contained , the parties hereto agree as follows:
1.
2.
3.
IN WITNESS WHEREOF, the parties hereto have caused this Agreement to be executed by their respective duly authorized officers as of the date first herinabove written.
______ Ltd. ________ Co., Ltd.
(signature) (signature)
MANAGING DIRECTOR MANAGING DIRECTOR
該合同也由四大部分構(gòu)成，與上述合同最大的不同在于，在敘述部分上端加了一個(gè)WITNESSETH（鑒于），最后落款處也沒有SIGNED BY 項(xiàng)目，但授權(quán)簽字代表的職位真接打出來，放在簽字的下一行。別外，當(dāng)事人的簡稱部分用的都是大寫。
相比之下，英文合同除個(gè)別地方外，整個(gè)合同的段落排列，句式和用詞大同小異。在草擬英文合同時(shí)，只要仿用上述任何一個(gè)，都算是地道的英文表達(dá)。
英語合同的用詞特點(diǎn)(Formal term)
合同英語的用詞極其考究，具有特定性。要求選詞專業(yè)化（professional）、正式（formal）、準(zhǔn)確（accurate）。具體體現(xiàn)在下列方面：
1、May, shall, must ,may not (或shall not) 的使用
May, shall , must ,may not (或shall not)對(duì)學(xué)過英語的人再熟悉不過，但在合同中用這些詞時(shí)要極其謹(jǐn)慎。權(quán)利義務(wù)的約見定部分構(gòu)成了合同的主體。這幾個(gè)詞如選用不當(dāng)，可能會(huì)引起糾紛。
may 旨在約定當(dāng)事人的權(quán)利（可以做什么），Shall約定當(dāng)事人的義務(wù)（應(yīng)當(dāng)做什么時(shí)候）， must 用于強(qiáng)制性義務(wù)（必須做什么），may not (或shall not)用于禁止性義務(wù)（不得做什么）。May do 不能說成can do shall do，不能說成should do 或ought to do，may not do 在美國一些法律文件可以用shall not，但絕不能用can not do或must not )
例如，在約定解決爭議的途徑時(shí)的，可以說：
The parties hereto shall, first of all, settle any dispute arising from or in connection with the contract by friendly negotiations. Should such negotiations fail, such dispute may be referred to the People’s Court having jurisdiction on such dispute for settlement in the absence of any arbitration clause in the disputed contract or in default of agreement reached after such dispute occurs.
本句中的shall 和may表達(dá)準(zhǔn)確。出現(xiàn)爭議后應(yīng)當(dāng)先行協(xié)商，所以采用了義務(wù)性“約定”，如果協(xié)商解決不了，作為當(dāng)事人的權(quán)利，用選擇性約定may也很妥當(dāng)。如果may和shall 調(diào)換位置會(huì)怎么樣？ 前半句的shall換用may后，意思變成了當(dāng)事人可以通過協(xié)商解決，意思上說得過去，但后半句的may換用shall 后，變成了應(yīng)當(dāng)訴訟解決，好象一出事，就要先見官，這就有些不友好了。
本句可譯：雙方首先應(yīng)通過友好協(xié)商，解決因合同而發(fā)生的或與合同有關(guān)的爭議。如果協(xié)商未果，合同中又無仲裁條款約定或爭議發(fā)生后未就仲裁達(dá)成協(xié)方的，可將爭議提交有管轄權(quán)的人民法院解決。
2、正式用語（formal term）
合同英語有著嚴(yán)肅的風(fēng)格，與其它英語作品有很大不同。
例如：
“因?yàn)?rdquo;的短語多用“by virtue of "，遠(yuǎn)遠(yuǎn)多于“due to”一般不用“because of ”；
“財(cái)務(wù)年度末”一般用“at the close of the fiscal year”，而不用“in the end of the fiscal year”；
“在……之前”一般用“prior to”，而不用“before”；
“關(guān)于”常用“as regards”， “concerning”或“relating to”，而不會(huì)用“about”；
“事實(shí)上”用“in effect”，而不用“in fact”；
“開始”用“commencement”,而不用“start”或“begin”；
“停止做”用“cease to do”，而不用“stop to do”；
“何時(shí)開會(huì)并由某某主持”的表述為：The meeting shall be convened and presided by sb. 其中“召開”不用“hold 或call”，而用“convene”；“主持”不用“chair”或“be in charge of ”，而用“preside”；
“其他事項(xiàng)”用“miscellaneous”, 而不用“other matters/events”；
“理解合同”用“construe a contract” 或“comprehend a contract”，而不用“understand a contract”;
“認(rèn)為”用“deem”，用“consider”少，不用“think”或“believe”；
“愿意做”用“intend to do”或“desrie to do”，而不用“want to do”, “wish to do”。
用詞專業(yè)（Technical Terms）
合同用詞不以大眾是否理解和接受為轉(zhuǎn)移，它是合同語言準(zhǔn)確表達(dá)的保障。如合同出現(xiàn)的“瑕疵”、“救濟(jì)”、“不可抗力”、“管轄”、“損毀”、“滅失”等就可能讓非行業(yè)人士費(fèi)解，在英語以上表達(dá)分別為defect、remedy、force majuere/Act of God、jurisdiction、damage and/or loss)。另外幾乎每個(gè)合同都少不了hereinafter referred to as , whereas, in witness whereof, for and on behalf of , hereby, thereof 等虛詞。這也是合同英語的一大特色。
其它例子還有：
“賠償”用“indemnities”，而不用“compensation”
“不動(dòng)產(chǎn)轉(zhuǎn)讓”用“conveyance”，而不用“trnasfer of real estate”
“房屋出租”用“tenancy”，而“財(cái)產(chǎn)出租”用“lease of property”
“停業(yè)”用“wind up a business”或“cease (名詞是cessation) a business”,而不用“end/stop a business”
專利許可中的“特許權(quán)使用費(fèi)”只用“royalities”
還款或?qū)＠暾?qǐng)的“寬限期”英文“grace”,
“當(dāng)事人在破產(chǎn)中的和解”用“composition”
以實(shí)物出資為“investment in kind”
“依照合同相關(guān)規(guī)定”一般說“pursuant to provisions contained herein”或“as provided herein”等，不說“according to relevant terms and conditions in the contract”
“合同任何一方當(dāng)事人不得轉(zhuǎn)讓本合同”英文表述為“Neither party hereto may assign this contract”，其中“hereto”表示“to the contract”，選用“Neither party to the contract”較少。
3、同義詞、近義詞、相關(guān)詞的序列
FOR value RECEIVED，the undersigned does hereby sell, transfer, assign and set over to ______ all his right, tile and interest in and to a certain contract dated ______, 19____ by and between the undersigned and ______，a copy of which is annexed hereto.
在這里的同義詞和近義詞并列（如sell, transfer, assign and set over，right和 tile and interest），在英文合同里十分普遍。這是出于嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)和杜絕漏洞的考慮，有的也屬于合同用語的固定模式。如：
This agreement is made and entered into by and between Party A and Party B.句中“made and entered into”和“by and between”兩組分別屬于同義詞和相關(guān)詞并列。
For and in consideration of mutual covenants and agreements contained herein, the parties hereby covenant and agree as follows: 句中“for and in consideration of ”， “covenants and agreements”三組同義司和近義詞并列。
The parties have agreed to vary the Management on the terms and subject to the conditions contained herein. 這里的“on the terms”和“subject to the conditions”是一個(gè)意思都表示“依照本協(xié)議的條款規(guī)定”。合同條款的固定模式是“terms and conditions”
再例如：
“Party A wishes to be released and discharged from agreement as from the feective date”，一句中的“realease”和“discharge”意思幾乎相同。
并列的詞還有：
ships and vessels
support and maintenance
licenses and permits
charges, fees, costs and expenses
any and all
any duties, obligations or liabilities
the partners, their heirs, successors and assigns
control and management of the partnership
applicable laws, regulations, decrees, directives, and rules
4、拉丁詞
在國外合同中，拉丁詞仍然是很常見：
比例稅率：用pro rate tax rate要比proportional tax rate多
從事慈善性服務(wù)的律師：pro bono lawyer，不怎么用lawyer engaged in charitable legal assistance
委托代理人：多用agent ad litem
不可抗力：force majuere.
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